Top 10 Best Shovelhead Spark Plugs You Can’t Miss!
Many riders of classic Harley-Davidson Shovelhead motorcycles face the challenge of finding spark plugs that deliver reliable performance and consistent ignition. Choosing the right spark plugs can improve engine efficiency, reduce misfires, and extend the life of your bike. The best shovelhead spark plugs are designed specifically to meet the needs of these vintage engines.
The best shovelhead spark plugs are designed specifically to meet the needs of these vintage engines. They offer compatibility with Shovelhead motors and help maintain smooth running conditions under various riding styles. This review will cover key features such as durability, heat range, and ease of installation for several popular spark plug options.
Whether you maintain your Shovelhead daily or bring it out for weekend rides, understanding these factors can help you make an informed choice.
Unlock Top Ignition Performance with These Leading Options for Your Shovelhead Engine
| Image | Product | Price |
|---|---|---|
Our Recommended 1 ![]() | E3 SPARK PLUGS : HD 5R6A – Pair | Check Price |
Our Recommended 2 ![]() | 2Pcs CNPAPC Iridium IX Spark Plugs DCPR7EIX #3144#6046#97637 for 1999-2016 | Check Price |
Our Recommended 3 ![]() | 10 Pcs 389-100 Spark Plug Port Insert Tool Set 38900 | Check Price |
1. E3 SPARK PLUGS : HD 5R6A – Pair

Experience enhanced engine performance with the E3 SPARK PLUGS HD 5R6A pair, specially crafted for Shovelhead models from 1975 to 1984 and Big Twin Evolution models from 1984 to Its innovative design offers reliable ignition that contributes to smoother rides and better throttle response.
Backed by advanced university research, the Edge-to-Edge electrode technology gives these spark plugs a competitive advantage by maximizing combustion efficiency. This results in noticeable power gains and cleaner emissions for your motorcycle.
The E3 HD 5R6A spark plugs are tailored to fit classic Harley-Davidson models, making them a perfect replacement for HD# 5R6A plugs. Their patented electrode design promotes a more complete fuel burn, which translates to reduced fuel consumption and prolonged engine lifespan.
Manufactured by Mid USA, these plugs maintain consistent quality and durability. Riders will appreciate the improved throttle response and more efficient engine operation without frequent plug changes.
The plugs provide a balance between performance and longevity, which is ideal for weekend riders or daily commuters who want a dependable ignition component.
Compared to some standard spark plugs, the E3 design enhances both power output and emissions control, setting it apart as a worthwhile upgrade. Its usability aligns well with both seasoned mechanics and casual users seeking trouble-free maintenance.
Pros
- Patented Edge-to-Edge electrode for improved combustion efficiency
- Compatible with Shovelhead and Big Twin Evolution Harley models
- Enhances power and reduces harmful emissions
Cons
- Limited to specific Harley-Davidson model years
The E3 SPARK PLUGS HD 5R6A pair offers a solid upgrade focused on performance, fuel economy, and durability. Its targeted compatibility and innovative design make it a smart choice for owners aiming to maintain or improve their Harley’s running condition with minimal effort.
2. 2Pcs CNPAPC Iridium IX Spark Plugs DCPR7EIX #3144#6046#97637 for 1999-2016

Experience reliable ignition and enhanced engine performance with the 2Pcs CNPAPC Iridium IX Spark Plugs DCPR7EIX. Crafted with double iridium tips, these plugs offer exceptional ignitability and improved throttle response for smoother rides.
These spark plugs reduce flameout occurrences and contribute to better fuel efficiency. Built with a durable iridium alloy, they withstand high temperatures ensuring consistent performance over time.
Installation is straightforward, providing a quick upgrade that maintains engine stability and power delivery.
The 2Pcs CNPAPC Iridium IX spark plugs are engineered to deliver lasting durability. Their fine double iridium tips resist wear and offer a stable spark throughout the plugs’ lifecycle. This high melting point material suits modern high-performance engines, maintaining ignition precision and acceleration.
This high melting point material suits modern high-performance engines, maintaining ignition precision and acceleration.
Fuel consumption improves as the plugs minimize engine misfires, making each ride more efficient. The trivalent metal plating enhances electrical conductivity and prolongs the plug’s operational life. Compatible with various motorcycle models, each order includes two spark plugs ready for replacement.
Compatible with various motorcycle models, each order includes two spark plugs ready for replacement.
Ideal for riders seeking consistent engine responsiveness, these plugs provide a balance of reliability and longevity. Customer support includes a 12-month warranty, ensuring confidence in your purchase. The combination of advanced materials and thoughtful design makes these plugs a valuable upgrade for maintaining engine performance on the road.
The combination of advanced materials and thoughtful design makes these plugs a valuable upgrade for maintaining engine performance on the road.
Pros
- Double iridium tips for extreme ignitability and durability
- Improves fuel efficiency by reducing flameout events
- Wide compatibility with Harley Davidson and other motorcycle models
Cons
- May require checking compatibility on non-listed motorcycle models
This pair of iridium spark plugs offers reliable ignition and enhanced throttle response. Their durable build and compatibility make them a smart choice for keeping motorcycles running smoothly.
3. 10 Pcs 389-100 Spark Plug Port Insert Tool Set 38900

Maintaining engine performance requires reliable tools that provide precision and durability. The 10 Pcs 389-100 Spark Plug Port Insert Tool Set 38900 offers a practical solution designed for specific Ford Triton engines.
It tackles common insert failures, ensuring your spark plug ports are in top shape for smooth operation.
Crafted from oversized steel alloy, this tool set resists heat transfer and stands up to demanding conditions. Whether you are performing regular maintenance or addressing wear, these inserts provide confidence in the repair process.
The set includes ten inserts, each sized for accuracy and secure fitment in 6L, 4L, and
8L V-10 engines.
The 10 Pcs 389-100 Spark Plug Port Insert Tool Set is tailored for Ford Triton two-valve engines from 1996 to It offers a direct replacement for the worn inserts that often cause spark plug sealing issues.
This durability keeps engine components protected during prolonged use and harsh conditions.
Each insert features an inside diameter of M14 x 25 and an outside diameter aligned with OEM standards, facilitating easy installation and a secure fit. The tool set consists of ten units to cover multiple repairs or servicing requirements.
Its build quality supports long-term use, making it a trusted choice for professionals and DIY mechanics alike.
Installation is straightforward and saves time during engine maintenance, reducing complications often caused by damaged inserts. This set offers excellent value by preventing additional repairs caused by faulty insert seals. It suits users who own compatible Ford engines and require a practical, reliable insert replacement solution.
Pros
- Durable oversized steel alloy construction resists heat transfer
- Exact fit for Ford 4.6L, 5.4L, and 6.8L V-10 Triton engines
- Set includes ten inserts suitable for multiple repairs
Cons
- Limited to specific Ford engine models only
This spark plug port insert set offers a focused and durable repair option for specific Ford Triton engines. Its precise design and material quality make it a dependable choice for maintaining ignition system integrity and saving time during repairs.
4. 10pcs Replacement for 389-100 Spark Plug Port Insert Tool Set

Maintain your vehicle’s spark plug ports effortlessly with this 10-piece replacement insert tool set. Designed to fit specific Ford Triton engines, it offers a reliable way to service your spark plug ports accurately. Durable materials and precise dimensions ensure a seamless fit and lasting performance.
The tools provide compatibility with Ford 6L, 4L, and
4L, and 8L V-10 Triton Two Valve engines from 1996 to Each insert matches the original part number 389-100, making replacement straightforward.
The set includes 10 alloy inserts for convenient multiple uses or replacements.
Crafted from high-quality alloy, the inserts resist wear and corrosion during repeated use. Their precise dimensions—M14 x 25 inside diameter and .
25 inside diameter and .75 -16 outside diameter—allow a snug and secure fit. These dimensions are tailored specifically for certain Ford engines, making the tool reliable for maintenance tasks.
The kit suits both professional mechanics and DIY users focusing on spark plug port repairs or cleaning. Using these inserts avoids damaging delicate ports during tool application.
Compared to generic alternatives, this set guarantees better compatibility and reduces the risk of tool slippage or misfit. It simplifies spark plug service jobs and extends the working life of related engine components.
Pros
- Specifically fits Ford 4.6L, 5.4L, and 6.8L Triton engines (1996-2003)
- High-quality alloy construction resists corrosion and wear
- Precise dimensions ensure a secure, damage-free fit
Cons
- Compatibility limited to specific engine models and years
This replacement tool set offers reliable compatibility and durability for Ford Triton engine maintenance. It stands out by providing precise fit and long-lasting alloy inserts, simplifying spark plug port servicing with confidence.
5. E3 Spark Plugs E3.20 Lawn and Garden Spark Plug with

Upgrade your small engine’s performance with the E3 Spark Plugs E3.20 Lawn and Garden Spark Plug. Designed specifically for 4-cycle, overhead valve engines, it delivers enhanced power output and a cleaner burn.
Enjoy a smoother running engine that uses fuel more efficiently and produces fewer emissions.
Built with patented DiamondFire technology, this spark plug ensures a faster and more complete combustion process. It’s an excellent choice for both 2- and 4-stroke engines, promising improved fuel economy while meeting modern environmental standards.
The E3.20 spark plug stands out due to its unique ground electrode design, creating an edge-to-edge spark path.
This innovative feature allows for a quicker flame front spread and more consistent ignition in small engines. Regular spark plugs often suffer from carbon buildup, but the E3.20 minimizes this issue by promoting a cleaner combustion chamber.
Installation is straightforward, fitting as a reliable replacement for popular plugs like Champion RC12YC and NGK BKR4E. Built with durable materials, it offers longevity backed by a limited lifetime guarantee. This spark plug is an excellent match for lawn mowers and other garden equipment, providing trustworthy performance throughout its service life.
Compared to conventional spark plugs, the E3.20 can increase power output by up to 12% and improve fuel economy by up to 13%. These benefits make it an efficient and cost-effective choice for anyone seeking to maintain their small engine equipment with a plug that enhances both power and environmental friendliness.
These benefits make it an efficient and cost-effective choice for anyone seeking to maintain their small engine equipment with a plug that enhances both power and environmental friendliness.
Pros
- Patented DiamondFire technology ensures faster, more complete combustion
- Increases power by up to 12% and improves fuel economy by up to 13%
- Compatible with many popular spark plug models for easy replacement
Cons
- Primarily designed for 4-cycle, overhead valve engines; may not suit all engine types
With its innovative design and reliable performance, the E3 Spark Plugs E3.20 is a smart choice for maintaining your lawn and garden equipment.
It balances power gains and fuel savings while supporting cleaner emissions, making it a valuable upgrade for small engine maintenance.
6. E3 Spark Plugs E3.54 Premium Automotive Spark Plug with DiamondFIRE

Experience enhanced engine performance and reliability with the E3 Spark Plugs E3.54 Premium Automotive Spark Plug featuring DiamondFIRE technology. Crafted to improve combustion efficiency, it promises smoother rides and better fuel economy for a wide range of domestic vehicles.
Crafted to improve combustion efficiency, it promises smoother rides and better fuel economy for a wide range of domestic vehicles.
Designed to reduce harmful emissions and deliver long-lasting durability, these spark plugs provide a dependable upgrade for drivers seeking improved power output and cleaner engine operation.
The E3.54 spark plug incorporates the patented DiamondFIRE side-wire electrode, which promotes a faster and more complete combustion process.
Constructed using a Yttrium-enhanced alloy, these plugs resist pre-ignition wear and deliver consistent performance over time. The improved combustion also reduces carbon buildup, which supports lower emissions and helps maintain cleaner engine components.
This spark plug suits drivers looking for dependable replacements that offer measurable boosts in engine power and fuel savings. Backed by a 5-year or 100,000-mile warranty, it ensures long-term value and less frequent replacements, making it a practical choice for domestic automotive applications.
Pros
- DiamondFIRE side-wire electrode for faster, more complete combustion
- Improves power output and fuel efficiency across various engines
- Durable Yttrium-enhanced alloy construction offers resistance to wear and pre-ignition
Cons
- May not fit some non-domestic or specialty engines without verification
Reliable, efficient, and designed to reduce emissions, the E3.54 spark plug is a strong candidate for anyone aiming to upgrade their vehicle’s ignition system.
7. A & E Hand Tools 4450A E-Z Grip Spark Plug

Enhance your spark plug maintenance with the A & E Hand Tools 4450A E-Z Grip Spark Plug tool. Designed for precision and convenience, this tool simplifies the process of correctly gapping spark plugs, ensuring optimal engine performance.
Its user-friendly design promotes quick adjustments without hassle.
Featuring a metric gapping scale on the reverse side, the tool offers clear measurements for accurate spacing. The built-in recess allows easy electrode adjustments, making it a practical addition to any mechanic’s toolkit.
Compact and lightweight, it carries a pocket clip for portability, fitting seamlessly into daily use.
The A & E Hand Tools 4450A delivers an efficient way to maintain spark plugs with reliable accuracy. Compact dimensions and a lightweight build ensure it’s easy to handle and store.
Made with quality materials, it combines durability with functionality for long-term use. The metric scale aids users in setting precise gaps tailored to specific engines.
Its pocket-clip design enhances convenience, allowing mechanics or DIY users quick access whenever required.
Perfect for professional technicians and home mechanics alike, the tool simplifies spark plug service tasks. Its simple operation and clear scale reduce errors during maintenance. Compared to similar options, it stands out for its ergonomic grip and thoughtful features that save time and effort.
Compared to similar options, it stands out for its ergonomic grip and thoughtful features that save time and effort.
Pros
- Built-in metric gapping scale for precise measurements
- Recess designed to adjust electrodes without causing damage
- Pocket clip adds portability for easy access on the go
Cons
- Limited use outside spark plug maintenance tasks
This spark plug gapping tool provides dependable accuracy and convenience, making spark plug maintenance straightforward. Its design focuses on ease of use and long-term service, making it an excellent choice for various mechanical needs.
8. NGK 6418 Iridium Spark Plugs BKR6EIX —6 PCS NEW

NGK 6418 Iridium Spark Plugs BKR6EIX comes as a pack of six, designed to deliver reliable ignition for smooth engine performance. These spark plugs provide enhanced durability and consistent sparks, making them an excellent choice for maintaining vehicle efficiency.
Built with iridium technology, these spark plugs reduce wear and improve combustion, resulting in better fuel economy and lower emissions. Their precise design ensures easy installation and a secure fit for a variety of engines.
These spark plugs are crafted by NGK, an established name in automotive parts, ensuring trusted quality and long-lasting use. Iridium tips offer superior wear resistance compared to standard plugs, extending service life significantly.
The fine electrode design lowers voltage requirements and ensures stable ignition under various conditions.
Installation is straightforward with an exact fit that suits OEM specifications, minimizing the need for adjustments. They deliver stable performance in both cold starts and high-speed driving, improving overall engine response.
Ideal for car owners seeking durable and efficient ignition parts, they balance performance with longevity. These spark plugs are well-suited for daily drivers and those maintaining their vehicles with original-equipment parts in mind. Their consistent performance gains appreciation among users aiming to keep engines running clean and efficiently over time.
Pros
- Durable iridium tip extends spark plug lifespan significantly
- Consistent ignition promotes better fuel efficiency and power
- Easy installation with precise OEM fit reduces hassle
Cons
- May be priced higher than some conventional spark plugs
NGK’s iridium spark plugs provide dependable performance suited for a wide range of vehicles. Their balance of durability and efficiency makes them a strong contender against other spark plug options in the market, offering solid value for maintaining engine health.
9. Aircraft Tool Supply Ats Economy Spark Plug Gapping Kit

Precision and reliability come together in the Aircraft Tool Supply Ats Economy Spark Plug Gapping Kit. Designed for effective spark plug maintenance, it offers a simple way to achieve perfect electrode gaps. The compact kit is tailored for those who value durability and ease in spark plug care.
The compact kit is tailored for those who value durability and ease in spark plug care.
Ideal for both professionals and DIYers, the gapping tool supports proper engine function and efficiency. Its lightweight design ensures easy handling and portability during vehicle service.
The kit provides consistent, accurate adjustments, improving overall engine performance and ignition.
Crafted by Aircraft Tool Supply, this gapping kit balances quality with convenience. The tool features a reliable build that withstands routine use without degradation. Its ergonomic design allows smooth operation, saving time and effort in spark plug preparation.
Adjusting the spark plug gap becomes straightforward, helping guarantee optimal firing and fuel combustion. The kit’s compact dimensions make it easy to store in any toolbox or mechanic’s drawer. Designed to work well with various spark plugs, it suits many automotive and small engine applications.
With no batteries required and a lightweight form, the kit supports on-the-go repairs and quick adjustments. Its affordability complements its dependable functionality, delivering good value for routine maintenance tasks. Overall, this kit provides a practical solution for maintaining best shovelhead spark plugs and other types.
Pros
- Durable construction ensures long-term reliability
- Ergonomically designed for easy, precise adjustments
- Compact and lightweight for convenient storage and use
Cons
- Limited to spark plug gapping; not a multi-tool
The Aircraft Tool Supply Ats Economy Spark Plug Gapping Kit offers efficient, accurate settings for spark plugs. Its balance of quality, usability, and cost effectiveness provides a useful tool for ongoing engine maintenance.
10. Lisle 67800 Spark Plug Gapper

Effortlessly maintain your engine’s performance with the Lisle 67800 Spark Plug Gapper. Designed for precision and durability, this tool ensures accurate spark plug gap settings every time. It is perfect for mechanics and DIYers seeking reliable ignition tuning tools.
The compact design fits comfortably in hand, making adjustments quick and simple. Crafted to industry standards, the gapper supports consistent combustion and engine efficiency. Whether you are tuning classic or modern engines, it provides dependable results to keep your vehicle running smoothly.
Whether you are tuning classic or modern engines, it provides dependable results to keep your vehicle running smoothly.
The Lisle 67800 delivers precise control over spark plug electrode gaps, critical for ignition efficiency. It features a lightweight build of just
01 pounds, allowing for easy handling and storage in any tool kit. The tool measures and adjusts gaps with minimal effort, reducing time spent on maintenance tasks.
Manufactured by Lisle, a trusted brand, it combines sturdy materials with a straightforward design to ensure long-lasting use. Its compatibility with a wide range of spark plugs makes it versatile for various engine types. An included limited lifetime warranty adds confidence in durability and performance.
Users appreciate the tool’s straightforward functionality and effective results. It ranks highly among automotive spark plug and ignition tools, helping to optimize engine firing and fuel consumption.
The gapper is ideal for automotive professionals and hobbyists focused on maintaining engine health without hassle.
Pros
- Accurate and reliable spark plug gap adjustments
- Lightweight and compact for easy handling
- Durable construction with limited lifetime warranty
Cons
- Limited features compared to multi-functional gap tools
Overall, the Lisle 67800 Spark Plug Gapper offers practical precision and durability. It stands out as a straightforward tool that supports effective ignition tuning without unnecessary complexity. A solid choice for those who value accuracy and ease of use in automotive maintenance.
A solid choice for those who value accuracy and ease of use in automotive maintenance.
Top 5 Best Shovelhead Spark Plugs Buying Guide 2024
Compatibility with shovelhead engines
Choosing spark plugs for a shovelhead engine requires attention to details such as the engine model and year since these factors influence the type of spark plug needed for optimal performance. Paying close attention to thread size and reach specifications is necessary to fit the plug securely and avoid potential damage to the engine. Additionally, the heat range of the spark plug should be suitable for the operating conditions and combustion characteristics of shovelhead engines, as this affects how well the spark plug handles temperature and prevents fouling or overheating.
Matching these aspects will help maintain engine efficiency and reliability, enhancing the overall riding experience.
Brand reputation and customer reviews
When selecting the best shovelhead spark plugs, choosing products from trusted manufacturers can make a significant difference in reliability and performance. Renowned companies often offer warranties that provide peace of mind and reflect confidence in their products, along with accessible customer support to handle any questions or concerns.
User feedback and performance reports serve as valuable resources, revealing how spark plugs perform under real-world conditions and helping buyers gauge durability and efficiency. Paying attention to these aspects can guide buyers toward spark plugs that deliver consistent ignition, better fuel efficiency, and smoother engine operation for their Shovelhead motorcycles.
Performance and efficiency
Choosing the best shovelhead spark plugs involves focusing on ignition reliability and spark consistency because these factors directly influence how smoothly the engine runs and how quickly it responds. A dependable spark plug maintains stable ignition cycles, which helps reduce misfires and enhances overall engine performance. Fuel efficiency impact is another important aspect since well-functioning spark plugs contribute to better combustion, allowing the engine to use fuel more effectively and potentially lower fuel consumption.
Additionally, emissions and environmental factors come into play as cleaner combustion results in fewer harmful exhaust emissions, promoting a greener riding experience. When selecting spark plugs, considering materials like iridium or platinum can improve durability and maintain spark quality over time.
Paying attention to the proper heat range suited for the engine and riding conditions also helps achieve consistent performance and efficiency on the road.
Material and construction quality
When choosing the best shovelhead spark plugs, the material and construction quality play a significant role in performance and longevity. Spark plugs commonly feature electrodes made from iridium, platinum, or copper, each offering different advantages.
Durable spark plugs resist the harsh conditions inside an engine, such as high heat and chemical exposure, which helps maintain consistent ignition and reduces the need for frequent replacements. Additionally, paying attention to manufacturing standards and certifications can offer peace of mind since reputable brands often adhere to strict quality controls that ensure the spark plugs meet or exceed industry requirements.
This contributes to reliable combustion and overall engine efficiency, making construction quality just as important as the specific electrode material in selecting spark plugs for shovelhead engines.
Ease of installation and maintenance
When choosing the best shovelhead spark plugs, the difference between pregapped and nongapped plugs plays a key role in ease of installation and maintenance. Pregapped plugs come with the spark gap already set to manufacturer specifications, which saves time and reduces the chance of error during installation.
Nongapped plugs require manual adjustment of the gap using specialized tools such as a spark plug gap gauge, which can be a straightforward process with the right technique but may add a step for beginners. Having proper tools like a gap gauge and basic hand tools enhances the installation experience and helps maintain performance. Cleaning spark plugs regularly can also extend their lifespan by removing carbon deposits and preventing misfires, which keeps the engine running smoothly.
Overall, selecting spark plugs that allow for simple gap checking and that match your motorcycle’s requirements can lead to less hassle during both installation and ongoing maintenance.
Price and value for money
When choosing the best shovelhead spark plugs, weighing budget options against premium plugs helps balance initial investment with long-term benefits. Budget-friendly spark plugs may be more accessible and require replacing more often, which influences their cost per mile compared to higher-end models designed for durability and consistent performance.
Availability plays a role in replacement frequency since easily found plugs reduce downtime and simplify upkeep for classic engines. Considering how often a plug will need replacing, along with its cost and reliability, can guide a purchase that fits both the riding style and maintenance routine, ensuring satisfactory value for money over time.
People Also Asked
How Often Should Spark Plugs Be Replaced On A Shovelhead Motorcycle?
Spark plugs on a Shovelhead motorcycle should typically be replaced every 5,000 to 10,000 miles, depending on riding conditions and spark plug type. Regular inspection is recommended to ensure optimal performance and prevent engine issues.
How Do Different Spark Plug Brands Compare For Shovelhead Motorcycles?
Different spark plug brands for Shovelhead motorcycles vary mainly in durability and heat range, with brands like NGK and Bosch often praised for reliable ignition and consistent performance. Choosing the right brand depends on factors such as riding style and engine tuning to ensure optimal spark and efficiency.
What Factors Should I Consider When Choosing Spark Plugs For A Shovelhead Engine?
When choosing spark plugs for a Shovelhead engine, consider the correct heat range specified by the manufacturer to ensure optimal combustion and prevent fouling or overheating. Additionally, select plugs with the proper thread size and reach to fit the engine’s cylinder heads correctly.
What Are The Top-Rated Spark Plugs For Shovelhead Engines?
The top-rated spark plugs for Shovelhead engines are typically the Champion J19LM and NGK B7HS models, known for their reliable performance and proper heat range. These plugs help ensure optimal ignition and smooth operation in vintage Harley-Davidson Shovelhead motorcycles.
Can Upgrading To Performance Spark Plugs Improve A Shovelhead Engine’S Efficiency?
Yes, upgrading to performance spark plugs can improve a Shovelhead engine’s efficiency by providing better ignition and more complete combustion. This can lead to enhanced power output, smoother running, and potentially improved fuel economy.
Conclusion
Choosing the best shovelhead spark plugs can significantly enhance engine performance and reliability, delivering smoother starts and better fuel efficiency. While some options may come at a higher price or require more frequent maintenance, their durability and compatibility with shovelhead engines often justify the investment.
Potential buyers should consider the balance between cost and quality to find the right fit for their specific needs. Overall, selecting from the best shovelhead spark plugs offers a dependable upgrade that supports both everyday riding and longer journeys, making it a practical choice for those aiming to maintain or improve their shovelhead’s engine function.
